A comparison of animated versus static images in an instructional multimedia presentation

Sophisticated three-dimensional animation and video compositing software enables the creation of complex multimedia instructional movies. However, if the design of such presentations does not take account of cognitive load and multimedia theories, then their effectiveness as learning aids will be compromised. We investigated the use of animated images versus still images by creating two versions of a 4-min multimedia presentation on vascular neuroeffector transmission. One version comprised narration and animations, whereas the other animation comprised narration and still images. Fifty-four undergraduate students from level 3 pharmacology and physiology undergraduate degrees participated. Half of the students watched the full animation, and the other half watched the stills only. Students watched the presentation once and then answered a short essay question. Answers were coded and marked blind. The “animation” group scored 3.7 (SE: 0.4; out of 11), whereas the “stills” group scored 3.2 (SE: 0.5). The difference was not statistically significant. Further analysis of bonus marks, awarded for appropriate terminology use, detected a significant difference in one class (pharmacology) who scored 0.6 (SE: 0.2) versus 0.1 (SE: 0.1) for the animation versus stills group, respectively (P=0.04). However, when combined with the physiology group, the significance disappeared. Feedback from students was extremely positive and identified four main themes of interest. In conclusion, while increasing student satisfaction, we do not find strong evidence in favour of animated images over still images in this particular format. We also discuss the study design and offer suggestions for further investigations of this type

A comparison of animated versus static images in an instructional multimedia presentation

Sophisticated three-dimensional animation and video compositing software enables the creation of complex multimedia instructional movies. However, if the design of such presentations does not take account of cognitive load and multimedia theories, then their effectiveness as learning aids will be compromised. We investigated the use of animated images versus still images by creating two versions of a 4-min multimedia presentation on vascular neuroeffector transmission. One version comprised narration and animations, whereas the other animation comprised narration and still images. Fifty-four undergraduate students from level 3 pharmacology and physiology undergraduate degrees participated. Half of the students watched the full animation, and the other half watched the stills only. Students watched the presentation once and then answered a short essay question. Answers were coded and marked blind. The “animation” group scored 3.7 (SE: 0.4; out of 11), whereas the “stills” group scored 3.2 (SE: 0.5). The difference was not statistically significant. Further analysis of bonus marks, awarded for appropriate terminology use, detected a significant difference in one class (pharmacology) who scored 0.6 (SE: 0.2) versus 0.1 (SE: 0.1) for the animation versus stills group, respectively (P=0.04). However, when combined with the physiology group, the significance disappeared. Feedback from students was extremely positive and identified four main themes of interest. In conclusion, while increasing student satisfaction, we do not find strong evidence in favour of animated images over still images in this particular format. We also discuss the study design and offer suggestions for further investigations of this type

The Design of Animations and Multimedia for Teaching

There have been very few studies on the effectiveness of multimedia as a learning tool (Rolfe & Gray 2011). Our hypothesis was that students would prefer animated presentations and that learning would be enhanced. It has previously been reported that static images worked just as well as animation (Paik & Schraw, 2013). These authors examined the ‘Illusion of Understanding’ in which students invest less cognitive effort when viewing an animation that appears to be easier to understand. Therefore we have investigated the use of animations versus static images in an instructional multimedia presentation. We created two versions of a 3D animation describing vascular function. V1 had a full 3D moving animation whilst V2 had 17 static images from the animation (Fig1). 54 Students (two groups of 27 level 3 physiology and pharmacology students) viewed V1 or V2 and then answered a short 8 min. question. A marking criteria assigned ‘core’ (essential material) and ‘bonus’ marks (correct use of terminology). Results showed a trend in favour of animation, but this was not statistically significant (table 1). The only significant difference was the lower bonus marks scored by the pharmacology ‘stills’ group vs the pharmacology ‘animation’ group. Student feedback was 88% positive showing a clear desire for more animation content. Our results illustrate the ‘Illusion of Understanding’ as appetite for animation did not translate into better grades in this form of ‘single view’ assessment (Daly et al., 2016). Future animations of this type must have lower extraneous (unnecessary) cognitive loading (i.e. background music) and assessment should feature multiple views with user control. The results of this study further confirm that 3D instructional animations per se will only be of value if appropriate multimedia and cognitive load theories are taken into account (Reed 2006)

α(2)-Adrenoceptor-mediated contractions of the porcine isolated ear artery: evidence for a cyclic AMP-dependent and a cyclic AMP-independent mechanism

1. The aim of this study was to determine the conditions under which the α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist UK14304 produces vasoconstriction in the porcine isolated ear artery. 2. UK14304 (0.3 μM) produced a small contraction of porcine isolated ear arteries which was 7.8±3.3% of the response to 60 mM KC1. Similar sized contractions were obtained after precontraction with either 30 nM angiotensin II, or 0.1 μM U46619 (8.2±1.8% and 10.2±2.6% of 60 mM KC1 response, respectively). However, an enhanced α(2)-adrenoceptor response was uncovered if the tissue was precontracted with U46619, and relaxed back to baseline with 1–2 μM forskolin before the addition of UK14304 (46.9±9.6% of 60 mM KC1 response). 3. The enhanced responses to UK14304 in the presence of U46619 and forskolin were not inhibited by the α(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (0.1 μM), but were inhibited by the α(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist rauwolscine (1 μM), indicating that the enhanced responses were mediated via postjunctional α(2)-adrenoceptors. 4. In the presence of 0.1 μM U46619 and 1 mM isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX), 1 μM forskolin produced an increase in [(3)H]-cyclic AMP levels in porcine isolated ear arteries. Addition of 0.3 μM UK14304 prevented this increase. 5. The enhanced UK14304 response was dependent upon the agent used to relax the tissue. After relaxation of ear arteries precontracted with 10 nM U46619 and relaxed with forskolin the UK14304 response was 46.9±9.6% of the 60 mM KC1 response, and after relaxation with sodium nitroprusside (SNP) the response was 24.8±3.3%. However, after relaxation of the tissue with levcromakalim the UK14304 response was only 8.2±1.7%, which was not different from the control response in the same tissues (12.2±5.6%). An enhanced contraction was also obtained after relaxation of the tissue with the cyclic AMP analogue dibutyryl cyclic AMP (23.2±1.3%) indicating that at least part of the enhanced response to UK14304 is independent of the ability of the agonist to inhibit cyclic AMP production. 6. Relaxation of U46619 contracted ear arteries with SNP could be inhibited by the NO-sensitive guanylyl-cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4] oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) indicating that production of cyclic GMP is necessary for the relaxant effect of SNP. However, ODQ had no effect on the relaxation of tissue by forskolin, suggesting that this compound does not act via production of cyclic GMP. Biochemical studies showed that while forskolin increases the levels of cyclic AMP in the tissues, SNP had no effect on the levels of this cyclic nucleotide. 7. In conclusion, enhanced contractions to the α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist UK14304 can be uncovered in porcine isolated ear arteries by precontracting the tissue with U46619, followed by relaxation back to baseline with forskolin, SNP or dibutyryl cyclic AMP before addition of UK14304. There was a greater contractile response to UK14304 after relaxation with forskolin than with SNP or dibutyryl cyclic AMP, suggesting that cyclic AMP-dependent and- independent mechanisms are involved in the enhancement of the UK14304 response

α(2)-Adrenoceptor and NPY receptor-mediated contractions of porcine isolated blood vessels: evidence for involvement of the vascular endothelium

1. Enhanced contractions to the α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist UK14304 and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the porcine ear artery can be uncovered by pharmacological manipulation. The aim of this study was to determine whether similar pharmacological manipulation can uncover enhanced contractions in the porcine splenic artery, and to determine whether the endothelium modulates these responses. 2. UK14304 (0.3 μM) and NPY (0.1 μM) produced small contractions of the porcine splenic artery. After pre-contraction of the tissue with U46619, followed by relaxation with forskolin, the responses to both UK14304 and NPY were enhanced. Enhanced contractions to both UK14304 and NPY were also obtained after relaxation with SNP. These results demonstrate that, as in the porcine ear artery, α(2)-adrenoceptors and NPY receptors are able to produce enhanced contractile responses through both adenylyl cyclase-dependent and -independent signal transduction pathways. 3. Removal of the endothelium had no significant effect on responses to UK14304 either alone or in the presence of U46619 and forskolin in the porcine splenic artery. On the other hand, responses to UK14304 after relaxation with SNP were reduced after endothelium-denudation in both the porcine splenic artery and ear artery. Similar results were obtained with NPY in the porcine ear artery. 4. In conclusion, enhanced contractile responses to UK14304 and NPY in the porcine splenic artery can be uncovered using methods similar to those employed in the porcine ear artery. Under certain conditions the responses to both agents are modulated by the endothelium. These data highlight further the similarities in the signal transduction pathways used by both α(2)-adrenoceptors and NPY receptors to induce vasoconstriction